A Burning Legacy

Greek fire is a great mystery that humans have lost to time and secrecy. It’s one of the ancient world’s greatest puzzles, to which we have so few pieces, that scholars have spent centuries trying to figure out. Here’s what we know about it so far.

Its Purpose Was Nefarious

Greek fire was an incendiary substance meant to start fires on enemy ships. It was intentionally difficult to put out, and the substance earned a dangerous and terrifying reputation.

Unknown Author, Wikimedia Commons

It Didn’t Have Many Weaknesses

The substance was unaffected by water, which would put out a regular fire. There were also rumors that it was ignited by contact with water. Historians changed the list of Greek fire’s ingredients based on this quality.

Unknown Author, Wikimedia Commons

You Needed Special Tactics To Extinguish The Fire

According to many reports and extant writings, the flames were only extinguishable using unconventional methods. They would use urine, sand, and strong vinegar, and likely needed to create a specific chemical reaction to put out Greek fire.

Annajohepworth, Wikimedia Commons

This Empire Was The Only One To Use It

Greek fire was invented and used in naval conflicts by the Byzantine Empire. They used it from the seventh to fourteenth centuries in many, many nautical battles with other empires.

Unknown Author, Wikimedia Commons

It Went By Many Names

According to sources at the time, it was also called “sea fire”, “Roman fire”, “war fire”, “liquid fire”, “sticky fire”, “manufactured fire”, or “Median fire”. This is quite the list of nicknames for such a powerful substance. 

Photo 12, Getty Images

Many Tried To Replicate It

Many of the Byzantine Empire’s enemies tried to replicate the mixture. Unfortunately, they couldn’t fight fire with fire—they never figured out how to copy the recipe.

Unknown Author, Wikimedia Commons

It Was A Tightly Monitored Secret

The Byzantine government didn’t want their rivals to have the recipe for Greek fire. It was one of the closest kept secrets, so much so that they let the recipe disappear with those who knew of it.

Unknown Author, Wikimedia Commons

It Was A Wolf Among Coyotes

There were other flame strategies used for centuries prior to Greek fire’s invention. None were as powerful or as dangerous as the so-called “sea fire”.

Skylitzes Chrinicle, Wikimedia Commons

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The Mystery Of The Creator

The original inventor of Greek fire is unknown. No one is credited with the initial creation of the substance, despite how widespread its use was in the Byzantine Navy. Some claimed its source was far stranger than mere invention.

Unknown Author, Wikimedia Commons

A Religious Gift

Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenetos claimed the recipe was “shown and revealed by an angel to the great and holy first Christian emperor Constantine” and the angel bound him “not to prepare this fire but for Christians, and only in the imperial city”.

Unknown Author, Wikimedia Commons

Room For Improvement

A few years after it was first used, artificer Kallinikos of Heliopolis fled his home and joined the Byzantine Empire. Once there, he improved the recipe for Greek fire, and was partially credited as its creator. What he used in it is still up for debate.

Gts-tg, CC BY-SA 4.0, Wikimedia Commons

A Change In Fate

Once the recipe was finished, the Byzantine Empire was unstoppable. They were able to use the new Greek fire to their advantage. But this would be to the detriment of all they fought against. 

John Skylitzes, Wikimedia Commons

It Was An Explosive Addition To Combat

One of the ways Greek fire was deployed was through grenades. Byzantine sailors would toss them onto enemy ships, where they would ignite and explode, flames roaring across the decks.

José Luiz Bernardes Ribeiro, CC BY-SA 4.0, Wikimedia Commons

A Literal Fire Hose

Another method of launching the substance toward enemy ships was through long types, called siphons. This relied on shorter-range encounters. Once the enemy ship was further away, the siphon wasn’t as effective. That wasn’t their only method of attack, though.

Unknown Author, Wikimedia Commons

An Unexpected Early Innovation

Greek fire was also launched out of hand-held projection devices. These are dubbed as being early versions of what we know as a flame-thrower. This wouldn’t be the last time Greek fire inspired other inventions.

Unknown Author, Wikimedia Commons

The Byzantine Empire Faced Horrible Trials

The Byzantine Empire spent long years in the midst of conflict with empires in the East, especially Sassanid Persia. And the Byzantine Empire was at a disadvantage. 

Carole Raddato, CC BY-SA 2.0, Wikimedia Commons

The Forces To Rome’s East Were A Huge Threat

The Byzantine Empire had a difficult time fighting against the Persian conquest. And they weren’t the only country struggling to escape the attacks from the east. It didn’t look good for the empire, but luckily, an innovation changed that for them.

Constantine Manasses, Wikimedia Commons

In Steps Their Greatest Strategy

Greek fire changed the landscape of naval battles. It was highly effective against attacking fleets, and covered vast swathes of ships in flames. But the horrors of Greek fire didn’t stop there.

John Skylitzes, Wikimedia Commons

The Recovery Of Byzantine Power

Greek fire enabled the Byzantine Empire to win several battles and expand their empire during the late ninth and early tenth centuries. They were on a roll with this new substance at their disposal.

Alon Palzor, CC BY-SA 4.0, Wikimedia Commons

The Flames Turned Inward

The leaders of the Byzantine Empire needed to use Greek fire closer to home. They used this substance to quell several civil conflicts and rebellions throughout the eighth and ninth century. 

Unknown Author, Wikimedia Commons

Raiding Forces Felt The Burn

In addition to internal conflicts and forces attacking from the east, the Byzantine Empire also used their Greek fire against northern invaders. Rus’ invaded from the north, in what is now Sweden, and faced down Greek fire.

Unknown Author, Wikimedia Commons

The Devastation Was Immense

The flames of Greek fire were devastating. It cannot be emphasized enough that the substance would wreak havoc on fleets of ships, and could single-handedly devastate attacking forces. Which is why this next fact holds a lot of weight.

Unknown Author, Wikimedia Commons

The Divine Consequences

The recipe was held in such high regard, and was such an intense secret that Emperor Constantine made a wild claim. He said that someone who intended to reveal the secret was struck down by a “flame from heaven”.

Star Media, The Rurik Dynasty (2019)

A Coveted Secret

One of the empire’s enemies, the Bulgars, tried to replicate the recipe. They captured ships that carried the substance, but despite the amount of it they obtained, they weren’t able to discern the recipe.

Unknown Author, Wikimedia Commons

There Were Many Attempts At Recreation

The Bulgars weren’t the only enemies to try and replicate the substance. And while some of them got close to replicating it, none were able to create something that had the same explosive power as Greek fire.

John Skylitzes, Wikimedia Commons

Disappearing As Quickly As It Appeared

In a shocking turn, Greek fire wasn’t used during what was a pivotal moment for the imperial capital, Constantinople. It was distinctly absent during the 1203 siege of Constantinople when they were assailed by the Fourth Crusade. The reason why can’t be confirmed, but there are a couple of theories.

DimiTalen, Wikimedia Commons

The Fractures In The Empire

One of the theories why it wasn’t present is that the empire had lost some of its physical power. There was a disarmament in the two decades leading up to the siege, and this could have affected their ability to use the substance.

John Skylitzes, Wikimedia Commons

A Loss Of Territory

It could have also been due to losing access to ingredients as other empires took back territory, or the Byzantine Empire was forced out of their land. But the next theory fits with what we know today.

Bigdaddy1204, CC BY-SA 3.0, Wikimedia Commons

What Was Always Lost

It was even suspected that by the time the Fourth Crusade arrived, something had gone wrong with the recipe. It had already been lost, after decades and centuries of being in use. We’ll never know what was really in Greek fire, but historians have a couple of guesses. 

David Aubert (1449-79), Wikimedia Commons

The Descriptions Can’t Begin To Capture Greek Fire

During the Seventh Crusade, the Lord of Joinville described it as “a tail of fire” and that it sounded like “thunder of heaven” in his memoir of the events. But that isn’t the only way he described it.

Mahiet (illustrator), Wikimedia Commons

Fantasy Becomes Fact

The Lord of Joinville brought a fantastical description to how he talked about Greek fire. He painted it as “a dragon flying through the air”, with immense, air-shaking flames. At a time without large-scale explosives, this would have been a terrifying sight. 

Guillaume de Saint-Pathus, Wikimedia Commons

Modern Replication Is Attempted

During the height of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century, an Armenian man named Kavafian told the Ottoman government that he had rediscovered the recipe. This would have changed the face of conflicts all over the Earth.

Konstantin Kapıdağlı, Wikimedia Commons

Kavafian Had His Own Requirements

He wouldn’t hand the ingredients over without getting something in return. He told them he wanted to be placed in command of the Greek fire’s use during naval conflicts. But the Ottoman Empire’s response was wildly unexpected.

Hampton Roads Naval Museum, Wikimedia Commons

Kavafian’s Shocking End

Even though the imperial forces hadn’t acquired Kavafian’s secrets, they had to act before someone else was offered the recipe. Kavafian was poisoned, and whether or not he actually rediscovered the recipe was lost.

Unknown Author, Wikimedia Commons

The Downfall Of Secrecy

There was one major consequence to keeping the recipe in so few hands. As those who knew the ingredients were lost to time, so were the ingredients, and so was the recipe for Greek fire. It has been a source of speculation ever since.

zef art, Shutterstock

Greek Fire Had Lots Of Requirements

There were a lot of different components that went into carrying and launching Greek fire. It had special requirements needed in order to be effective.

Print Collector, Getty Images

It Needed These Special Accommodations

Ships that carried Greek fire had special launching mechanisms attached to the prows. These mechanisms needed specially trained operators to launch—they wouldn’t want untrained sailors accidentally setting their ship aflame.

Universal History Archive, Getty Images

The Recipe Is Highly Speculated

Many theories have come out about the recipe. With the origins being so mysterious, all modern historians have to go on is what was explosive at the time. This consisted of saltpeter (an early form of gunpowder), sulfur, quicklime, or calcium phosphides (which released phosphine when in contact with water, which spontaneously ignites).

Ivar Leidus, CC BY-SA 4.0, Wikimedia Commons

An Italian Recipe Might Hold The Answer

A recipe recorded in the 16th century might detail something close to Greek fire. The ingredients consist of willow tree charcoal, saltpeter, alcohol, sulfur, incense, tar, wool, and camphor. According to the recipe, it was both “beautiful” and able to “burn under water”.

Tom Murphy VII, CC BY-SA 3.0, Wikimedia Commons

Modern Scholars Think Differently

After many debates about the ingredients, it is generally assumed that Greek fire must have been petroleum-based. Some historians think there were resins added, which was comparable to modern napalm.

American Zoetrope, Apocalypse Now (1979)